Lieducation in preliterate societies Essay

facts of life, humbug of, theories, orders, and administration of rails and former(a) agencies of breeding from antiquated times to the present. find outing create from the homo struggle for survival and enlightenment. It may be formal or informal. Informal direction refers to the general affectionate process by which benignant beings acquire the experience and h grey inings requisite to function in their culture. Formal development refers to the process by which inculcateers instruct educatees in courses of adopt within institutions.Before the fraud of indicateing and writing, state lived in an surround in which they struggled to survive against inseparable forces, animals, and some(prenominal) otherwise humans. To survive, preliterate mickle genuine skills that grew into pagan and disciplineal patterns. For a particular ag meetings culture to continue into the prox, muckle had to transmit it, or pass it on, from adults to children. The earlier commandmental processes involved sharing culture virtu every last(predicate)y gathering victuals and providing aegis making weapons and other tools acquisition talking to and acquiring the values, behavior, and ghostlike rites or radiation patterns of a given culture.Through direct, informal development, parents, elders, and priests taught children the skills and roles they would l assoil as adults. These lessons eventually formed the honorable codes that governed behavior. Since they lived in front the contrivance of writing, preliterate wad affaird an oral tradition, or story telling, to pass on their culture and tarradiddle from ace generation to the next. By apply language, slew catch to create and use symbols, members, or signs to express their ideas. When these symbols grew into pictographs and letter, human beings created a written language and made the spectacular(p) ethnical leap to literacy.IIIEDUCATION IN superannuated AFRICA AND ASIA In ancient Egypt, which flourished from more or less 3000 BC to closely 500 BC, priests in synagogue checkhouses taught not only religion just too the principles of writing, the sciences, mathematics, and architecture. Similarly in India, priests conducted about of the formal statement. Beginning in about 1200 BC Indian priests taught the principles of the Veda, the sacred texts of Hinduism, as well as science, grammar, and philosophy. Formal command in China dates to about 2000 BC, though it thrived particularly during the Eastern Zhou Dynasty, from 770 to 256 BC (see China The Eastern Zhou).The plan show philosophy, poetry, and religion, in accord with the instructs of Confucius, Laozi (Lao-tzu), and other philosophers. IVEDUCATION IN ANCIENT GREECE Historians have looked to ancient Greece as one of the origins of westerly formal statement. The Iliad and the Odyssey, grand poems attri excepted to Homer and written well-nightime in the 8th carbon BC, created a cultural t radition that gave the classics a sense of company identity. In their dramatic account of unspotted struggles, Homers epics served important readingal purposes.The legendary Grecian warriors depicted in Homers pasture, much(prenominal) as Agamemnon, Odysseus, and Achilles, were heroes who served as models for the young Grecians. Ancient Greece was shared into lessened and lots competing city-states, or poleis, much(prenominal) as capital of Greece, Sparta, and Thebes. Athens expressd a humane and democratic society and procreation, but only about one-third of the mass in Athens were free citizens. Slaves and residents from other countries or city-states made up the lodge in of the population. Only the sons of free citizens heeded inculcate.The Athenians believed a free man should have a across-the- maturate tuition in enounce to arrange his civic duties and for his own personalised development. The gentility of women depended upon the customs of the part icular Greek city-state. In Athens, where women had no legal or economic rights, just about women did not pick up get to. near girls, however, were educate at class by tutors. Slaves and other noncitizens had either no formal precept or precise little. Sparta, the chief political enemy of Athens, was a dictatorship that apply education for soldiery t severally(prenominal) and drill.In contrast to Athens, serious girls veritable more educate but it was al around exclusively athletic training to desex them to be healthy mothers of future Spartan soldiers. In the 400s BC, the Sophists, a group of wandering teachers, began to teach in Athens. The Sophists claimed that they could teach any subject or skill to anyone who wished to learn it. They specialized in teach grammar, logic, and rhetoric, subjects that eventually formed the core of the liberal arts.The Sophists were more interested in preparing their scholars to fence persuasively and win arguments than in d ogma principles of impartiality and lessonity. Un corresponding the Sophists, the Greek philosopher Socrates want to discover and teach popular principles of truth, beauty, and goodness.Socrates, who died in 399 BC, claimed that straightforward knowledge existed within eitherone and postulate to be brought to consciousness. His educational method, called the Socratic method, consisted of petition probing questions that forced his students to think pro entraply about the importee of life, truth, and justice. In 387 BC Plato, who had canvas at a lower place Socrates, realised a school in Athens called the Academy.Plato believed in an unever-changing world of perfect ideas or universal concepts. He assert that since true knowledge is the same in e truly place at e real time, education, like truth, should be unchanging. Plato described his educational non much(prenominal) in the democracy, one of the most renowned lay down of Western philosophy. Platos Re general descri bes a model society, or re humankind, govern by extravagantlyly able philosopher-kings. Warriors contract up the re opens reciprocal ohm class of people. The lowest class, the utilizationers, provide food and the other products for all the people of the republic.In Platos ideal educational administration, each class would receive a different kind of instruction to tog out for their variant roles in society. In 335 BC Platos student, Aristotle, founded his own school in Athens called the Lyceum. Believing that human beings are essentially rational, Aristotle thought people could discover natural laws that governed the universe and then keep these laws in their lives. He besides concluded that educated people who use reason to exonerate decisions would lead a life of rest period in which they avoided dangerous extremes.In the quaternate blow BC Greek speech benefitr Isocrates true a method of education intentional to prepare students to be workmanlike orators who could serve as government activity officials. Isocratess students studied rhetoric, politics, ethics, and history.They examined model orations and practiced public speaking. Isocratess methods of education directly turnd such Roman educational theorists as Cicero and Quintilian. VEDUCATION IN ANCIENT ROME darn the Greeks were growing their civicization in the areas surrounding the eastern Mediterranean Sea, the Romans were gaining control of the Italian peninsula and areas of the western sandwich Mediterranean.The Greeks education focused on the try out of philosophy. The Romans, on the other hand, were preoccupied with war, conquest, politics, and civilised administration. As in Greece, only a nonage of Romans accompanied school. Schooling was for those who had the cash to pay tuition and the time to attend classes. While girls from wealthy families occasionally intentional to read and write at home, boys accompanied a primordial school, called aludus. In secondhand s chools boys studied Latin and Greek grammar taught by Greek slaves, called pedagogues.After primary and indirect school, wealthy young men a good deal be schools of rhetoric or speaking that prepared them to be leaders in government and administration. Cicero, a initiative nose candy BC Roman senator, relianced Greek and Roman ideas on how to educate orators in his book De Oratore. Like Isocrates, Cicero believed orators should be educated in liberal arts subjects such as grammar, rhetoric, logic, mathematics, and astronomy. He similarly asserted that they should study ethics, military science, natural science, geography, history, and law.Quintilian, an powerful Roman pedagogue who lived in the 1st atomic number 6 AD, wrote that education should be establish on the stages of private development from puerility to adulthood. Quintilian devised specific lessons for each stage. He similarly advised teachers to elucidate their lessons suited to the students readiness and abi lity to learn hot material. He urged teachers to motivate students by making study interesting and attractive. VIANCIENT Judaic EDUCATION Education among the Jewish people also had a profound influence on Western learning.The ancient Jews had great respect for the printed word and believed that God revealed truth to them in the book of account. Most information on ancient Jewish goals and methods of education comes from the Bible and the Talmud, a book of ghostly and civil law. Jewish apparitional leaders, know as rabbis, advised parents to teach their children ghostly beliefs, law, honourable practices, and vocational skills. Both boys and girls were introduced to religion by studying the Torah, the most sacred schedule of Judaism. Rabbis taught in schools within synagogues, places of worship and religious study.VIIMEDIEVAL EDUCATIONDuring the pump Ages, or the chivalrous period, which lasted roughly from the 5th to the 15th century, Western society and education were he avily shape by Christianity, particularly the Roman Catholic church. The church building operated parish, chapel, and monastery schools at the elementary level. Schools in monasteries and cathedrals offered secondary coil education. Much of the precept in these schools was directed at learning Latin, the old Roman language used by the church in its ceremonies and instructions. The church provided some limited opport unities for the education of women in religious communities or convents.Convents had libraries and schools to help prepare nuns to follow the religious rules of their communities. Merchant and craft guilds also maintained some schools that provided introductory education and training in specific crafts. Knights authentic training in military simulated military operation and the code of chivalry. As in the Greek and Roman eras, only a minority of people went to school during the knightly period. Schools were be primarily by persons planning to image religious li fe such as priests, monks, or nuns. The vast majority of people were serfs who served as agricultural workers on the estates of feudal lords.The serfs, who did not attend school, were generally un learn (see Serfdom). In the 10th and early(a) eleventh centuries, Arabic learning had a pronounce influence on Western education. From advert with Arab scholars in North Africa and Spain, Western educators intimate forward-looking ways of thinking about mathematics, natural science, medicine, and philosophy. The Arabic number transcription was in particular important, and became the foundation of Western arithmetic. Arab scholars also preserved and translated into Arabic the whole kit and caboodle of such potent Greek scholars as Aristotle, Euclid, Galen, and Ptolemy.Because many another(prenominal) of these works had disappeared from Europe by the Middle Ages, they might have been lost constantly if Arab scholars such as Avicenna and ibn-Roshd had not preserved them. In the el eventh century medieval scholars developed scholasticism, a philosophical and educational movement that used twain human reason and revelations from the Bible. Upon encountering the works of Aristotle and other Greek philosophers from Arab scholars, the Scholastics attempted to finalize Christian theology with Greek philosophy.Scholasticism reached its high point in the Summa Theologiae of deification Thomas doubting Thomas, a 13th century Dominican theologian who taught at the University of Paris. Aquinas reconciled the authority of religious faith, equal by the Scriptures, with Greek reason, represented by Aristotle. Aquinas described the teachers vocation as one that acquiesces faith, love, and learning. The work of Aquinas and other Scholastics took place in the medieval institutions of higher education, the universities.The famous European universities of Paris, Salerno, Bologna, Oxford, Cambridge, and Padua grew out of the Scholastics-led intellectual revival of the twel fth and 13th centuries. The name university comes from the Latin word universitas, or associations, in reference to the associations that students and teachers organize to discuss academic issues. Medieval universities offered degrees in the liberal arts and in headmaster studies such as theology, law, and medicine. VIIIEDUCATION DURING THE RENAISSANCE The Renaissance, or rebirth of learning, began in Europe in the 14th century and reached its height in the 15th century.Scholars became more interested in the humanitarian featuresthat is, the secular or terrestrial instead than the religious aspectsof the Greek and Latin classics. Humanist educators found their models of literary behavior in the classics. The Renaissance was a particularly powerful force in Italy, most notably in art, literature, and architecture. In literature, the works of such Italian writers as Dante Aleghieri, Petrarch, and Giovanni Boccaccio became particularly important. Humanist educators designed educ ational activity methods to prepare well-rounded, liberally educated persons.Dutch humanist Desiderius Erasmus was particularly influential. Erasmus believed that understanding and conversing about the meaning of literature was more important than memorizing it, as had been required at many of the medieval religious schools. He advised teachers to study such fields as archaeology, astronomy, mythology, history, and Scripture. The invention of the printing press in the mid-15th century made books more widely useable and increased literacy rates (see Printing). But school attendance did not increase greatly during the Renaissance.Elementary schools educated middle-class children turn lower-class children received little, if any, formal schooling. Children of the grandness and upper classes attended humanist secondary schools. Educational opportunities for women improved slightly during the Renaissance, especially for the upper classes. Some girls from wealthy families attended schoo ls of the royal court or received private lessons at home. The curriculum studied by young women was excuse establish on the belief that only plastered subjects, such as art, music, needlework, dancing, and poetry, were suited for females.For wage-earning girls, especially rural peasants, education was still limited to training in home base duties such as cooking and sewing. IXEDUCATION DURING THE Protestant REFORMATION The religious Reformation of the sixteenth century marked a ebb in the authority of the Catholic Church and contributed to the emergence of the middle classes in Europe. Protestant religious domesticiseers, such as magic Calvin, Martin Luther, and Huldreich Zwingli, rejected the authority of the Catholic pope and created reformed Christian, or Protestant, churches.In their warm determination to instruct chase to read the Bible in their native language, reformers elongated literacy to the napes. They ceremonious vernacular primary schools that offered a s taple fibre curriculum of reading, writing, arithmetic, and religion for children in their own language. Vernacular schools in England, for example, used English to teach their pupils. As they argued with each other and with the Roman Catholics on religious matters, Protestant educators wrote catechismsprimary books that summarized their religious ismin a question and fare format.While the vernacular schools educated both boys and girls at the primary level, upper class boys attended preparatory and secondary schools that continued to emphasize Latin and Greek. The gymnasium in Germany, the Latin grammar school in England, and the lycee in France were preparatory schools that taught young men the classical languages of Latin and Greek required to discharge universities. Martin Luther believed the state, family, and school, along with the church, were leaders of the Reformation. Since the family shaped childrens character, Luther encouraged parents to teach their children readin g and religion.each family should pray together, read the Bible, study the catechism, and practice a useful trade. Luther believed that government should economic aid schools in educating literate, productive, and religious citizens. One of Luthers colleagues, German religious reformer Melanchthon, wrote the school code for the German region of Wurttemberg, which became a model for other regions of Germany and influenced education passim Europe. According to this code, the government was responsible for lapse schools and licensing teachers.The Protestant reformers retained the dual-class school corpse that had developed in the Renaissance. Vernacular schools provided primary instruction for the lower classes, and the divers(a) classical humanist and Latin grammar schools prepared upper-class males for higher education. XEDUCATIONAL THEORY IN THE seventeenth vitamin C Educators of the 17th century developed parvenue ways of thinking about education. Czech education reformer Ja n Komensky, known as Comenius, was particularly influential. A bishop of the Moravian Church, Comenius fly religious persecution by taking safety device in Poland, Hungary, Sweden, and The Netherlands.He created a sensitive educational philosophy called Pansophism, or universal knowledge, designed to spiel about world-wide understanding and peace. Comenius advised teachers to use childrens senses rather than memorization in instruction. To make learning interesting for children, he wrote The ingress of Tongues Unlocked (1631), a book for teaching Latin in the students own language. He also wrote Orbis Sensualium Pictus (1658 The patent World in Pictures, 1659) consisting of illustrations that labeled targets in both their Latin and vernacular names. It was one of the basic illustrated books written especially for children.The work of English philosopher John Locke influenced education in Britain and North America. Locke examined how people acquire ideas in An Essay Concerni ng Human Understanding (1690). He asserted that at birth the human mind is a blank slate, or tabula rasa, and empty of ideas. We acquire knowledge, he argued, from the information about the objects in the world that our senses bring to us. We begin with simple ideas and then combine them into more Gordian ones. Locke believed that individuals acquire knowledge most easily when they first accept simple ideas and then gradually combine them into more complex ones.In Some Thoughts Concerning Education (1697), Locke recommended practical learning to prepare people to manage their social, economic, and political personal matters efficiently. He believed that a sound education began in early childhood and insisted that the teaching of reading, writing, and arithmetic be gradual and cumulative. Lockes curriculum included conversational learning of foreign languages, especially French, mathematics, history, physiological education, and games. XIEDUCATION DURING THE judiciousness The Ag e of Enlightenment in the eighteenth century produced important changes in education and educational opening.During the Enlightenment, also called the Age of Reason, educators believed people could improve their lives and society by apply their reason, their powers of critical thinking. The Enlightenments ideas had a significant impact on the American R evolution (1775-1783) and early educational policy in the fall in States. In particular, American philosopher and scientist Benjamin Franklin express the value of utile and scientific education in American schools. Thomas Jefferson, the third president of the fall in States, stressed the importance of civic education to the citizens of a democratic nation.The Enlightenment principles that considered education as an instrument of social reform and improvement remain fundamental characteristics of American education policy. XIIEDUCATION IN THE 19TH vitamin C The foundations of modern education were established in the nineteenth century. Swiss educator Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi, animate by the work of French philosopher jean Jacques Rousseau, developed an educational method ground on the natural world and the senses. Pestalozzi established schools in Switzerland and Germany to educate children and train teachers.He affirmed that schools should resemble secure and winning homes. Like Locke and Rousseau, Pestalozzi believed that thought began with sensation and that teaching should use the senses. Holding that children should study the objects in their natural surroundings, Pestalozzi developed a so-called object lesson that involved exercises in learning form, number, and language. Pupils determined and traced an objects form, counted objects, and named them. Students progressed from these lessons to exercises in drawing, writing, adding, subtracting, multiplying, dividing, and reading.Pestalozzi employed the following principles in teaching (1) begin with the concrete object before introducing abstr act concepts (2) begin with the immediate environs before dealing with what is distant and out-of-door (3) begin with easy exercises before introducing complex ones and (4) always proceed gradually, cumulatively, and soft. American educator Henry Barnard, the first U. S. Commissioner of Education, introduced Pestalozzis ideas to the get together States in the late 19th century. Barnard also worked for the establishment of free public high schools for students of all classes of American society.German philosopher Johann Herbart emphasized moral education and designed a highly structured teaching technique. Maintaining that educations primary goal is moral development, Herbart claimed good character rested on knowledge while misconduct resulted from an understaffed education. Knowledge, he said, should create an apperceptive massa network of ideasin a persons mind to which advanced ideas can be added. He precious to include history, geography, and literature in the school curric ulum as well as reading, writing, and arithmetic.Based on his work, Herbarts followers designed a flipper-step teaching method (1) prepare the pupils to be ready for the new lesson, (2) present the new lesson, (3) associate the new lesson with ideas studied earlier, (4) use examples to illustrate the lessons major points, and (5) test pupils to ensure they had learned the new lesson. AKindergarten German educator Friedrich Froebel created the earliest kindergarten, a form of preschool education that literally means childs garden in German. Froebel, who had an unhappy childhood, urged teachers to think concealment to their own childhoods to find insights they could use in their teaching.Froebel studied at Pestalozzis play in Yverdon, Switzerland, from 1808 to 1810. While agreeing with Pestalozzis accent on the natural world, a companionable school atmosphere, and the object lesson, Froebel felt that Pestalozzis method was not philosophical enough. Froebel believed that every chi lds inner self-importance contained a spiritual essencea spark of divine energythat changed a child to learn severally. In 1837 Froebel unfastened a kindergarten in Blankenburg with a curriculum that featured songs, stories, games, gifts, and occupations.The songs and stories stimulated the imaginations of children and introduced them to folk heroes and cultural values. Games developed childrens social and physical skills. By playing with each other, children learned to participate in a group. Froebels gifts, including such objects as spheres, cubes, and cylinders, were designed to enable the child to understand the concept that the object represented. Occupations consisted of materials children could use in building activities. For example, clay, sand, cardboard, and sticks could be used to build castles, cities, and mountains.Immigrants from Germany brought the kindergarten concept to the fall in States, where it became part of the American school system. Margarethe Meyer Schur z open a German-language kindergarten in Watertown, Wisconsin, in 1855. Elizabeth Peabody established an English-language kindergarten and a training school for kindergarten teachers in Boston, Massachusetts, in 1860. William Torrey Harris, superintendent of schools in St. Louis, Missouri, and subsequently a U. S. commissioner of education, made the kindergarten part of the American public school system.BSocial DarwinismBritish sociologist Herbert Spencer potently influenced education in the mid-19th century with social theories based on the theory of evolution developed by British naturalist Charles Darwin. Spencer revised Darwins biological theory into social Darwinism, a body of ideas that use the theory of evolution to society, politics, the economy, and education. Spencer maintained that in modern industrialized societies, as in earlier simpler societies, the fittest individuals of each generation survived because they were intelligent and adaptable. Competition caused the brightest and strongest individuals to climb to the top of the society. importunity unlimited competition, Spencer valued government to spring its activities to the bare minimum. He opposed public schools, claiming that they would create a monopoly for mediocrity by catering to students of low ability. He wanted private schools to compete against each other in trying to attract the brightest students and most capable teachers. Spencers social Darwinism became very popular in the last half(prenominal) of the 19th century when industrialization was changing American and Western European societies. Spencer believed that people in industrialized society require scientific rather than classical education. punctuate education in practical skills, he advocated a curriculum featuring lessons in five basic human activities (1) those demand for self-preservation such as health, diet, and exercise (2) those take to perform ones occupation so that a person can earn a living, including the basic skills of reading, writing, computation, and knowledge of the sciences (3) those needed for parenting, to raise children properly (4) those needed to participate in society and politics and (5) those needed for leisure and recreation. Spencers ideas on education were eagerly accepted in the get together States.In 1918 the Cardinal Principles of Secondary Education, a report issued by the National Education Association, used Spencers list of activities in its recommendations for American education. XIIINATIONAL SYSTEMS OF EDUCATION In the 19th century, governments in the join Kingdom, Germany, France, Italy, and other European countries organized subject systems of public education. The unite States, Canada, Argentina, Uruguay, and other countries in North and southerly America also established national education systems based largely on European models. AIn the join Kingdom.The Church of England and other churches often operated primary schools in the United Kingdom, wh ere students paid a lilliputian fee to study the Bible, catechism, reading, writing, and arithmetic. In 1833 the British Parliament passed a law that gave some government funds to these schools. In 1862 the United Kingdom established a school grant system, called payment by results, in which schools received funds based on their students performance on reading, writing, and arithmetic tests. The Education Act of 1870, called the Forster Act, authorized local anaesthetic government boards to establish public board schools.The United Kingdom then had two schools systems board schools operated by the government and voluntary schools conducted by the churches and other private organizations. In 1878 the United Kingdom passed laws that limited child moil in factories and made it possible for more children to attend school. To make schooling usable to working-class children, many schools with limited public and private funds used monitorial methods of instruction. Monitorial education , developed by British educators Joseph Lancaster and Andrew Bell, used student monitors to conduct lessons.It offered the fledgling public education system the advantage of allowing schools to hire fewer teachers to instruct the large number of new students. Schools featuring monitorial education used older boys, called monitors, who were more advanced in their studies, to teach young children. Monitorial education concentrated on basic skillsreading, writing, and arithmeticthat were broken down into small parts or units. After a monitor had learned a unitsuch as spelling haggle of two or triple letters that began with the letter Ahe would, under the master teachers supervision, teach this unit to a group of students.By the end of the 19th century, the monitorial system was dispose in British schools because it provided a very limited education. BIn Russia Russian czar Alexander II initiated education reforms track to the Education Statute of 1864. This law created zemstvos, local government units, which operated primary schools. In auxiliary to zemstvo schools, the Russian Orthodox Church conducted parish schools. While the number of children attending school slowly increased, most of Russias population remained illiterate.Peasants often refused to send their children to school so that they could work on the farms. More boys attended school than girls since many peasant parents considered female education unnecessary. Fearing that too much education would make people discontented with their lives, the tsars government provided only limited schooling to instill political loyalty and religious piety. CIn the United States Before the 19th century elementary and secondary education in the United States was organized on a local or regional level. most all schools operated on private funds exclusively.However, beginning in the 1830s and 1840s, American educators such as Henry Barnard and Horace Mann argued for the creation of a school system operated by in dividual states that would provide an equal education for all American children. In 1852 Massachusetts passed the first laws calling for free public education, and by 1918 all U. S. states had passed compulsory school attendance laws. See Public Education in the United States. XIVEDUCATION IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY At the beginning of the 20th century, the publications of Swedish feminist and educator Ellen profound influenced education around the world.Keys book Barnets arhundrade (1900 The Century of the Child,1909) was translated into many languages and exalt so-called progressive educators in various countries. Progressive education was a system of teaching that emphasized the needs and potentials of the child, rather than the needs of society or the principles of religion. Among the influential progressive educators were Hermann Lietz and Georg Michael Kerschensteiner of Germany, Bertrand Russell of England, and Maria Montessori of Italy. AMontessoriMontessoris methods of ear ly childhood education have render internationally popular. Trained in medicine, Montessori worked with developmentally disabled children early in her career. The results of her work were so effective that she believed her teaching methods could be used to educate all children. In 1907 Montessori established a childrens school, the Casa dei Bambini (Childrens House), for poor children from the San Lorenzo district of Rome. Here she developed a specially prepared environment that featured materials and activities based on her observations of children.She found that children enjoy mastering specific skills, pick work to play, and can sustain concentration. She also believed that children have a power to learn independently if provided a properly bear on environment. Montessoris curriculum emphasized three major classes of activity (1) practical, (2) sensory, and (3) formal skills and studies. It introduced children to such practical activities as setting the table, parcel a meal, washing dishes, tying and buttoning clothing, and practicing basic social manners. Repetitive exercises developed sensory and muscular coordination.Formal skills and subjects included reading, writing, and arithmetic. Montessori designed special teaching materials to develop these skills, including laces, buttons, weights, and materials classifiable by their sound or smell. Instructors provided the materials for the children and demonstrate the lessons but allowed each child to independently learn the particular skill or behavior. In 1913 Montessori lectured in the United States on her educational method.