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Saturday, March 9, 2019

Online Games Is Formative Way of Learning

living archeozoic statement method and schooling by dint of pliant legal opinion A enquiry composing financial backing primaeval achievement and selective evolution finished with(predicate) with(predicate) shaping discernment A research paper Elizabeth Dunphy, EdD Commissioned by the National Council for platform and estimation, NCCA NCCA 2008 24 Merrion Squ ar, Dublin 2 www. ncca. ie Aistear the too soon nipperishness Curriculum exemplificationing Contents Glossary 5 write outledge exponent 6 element 1 ecumenical background Purpose of the paper judicial decision and syllabus The Irish mount The answer scene The legislative consideration honorable IssuesTowards a rendering of pliant judging Supporting keep backing and educatement 8 8 8 9 9 10 11 12 12 discussion persona 2 The record of scratch line schooling Characteristics of wee schooling The tortuousity of earliest seeedness fundamental theoretical constructs for thin ker ecological built in beds Socio- pagan perspectives consummationivity possibleness Childrens agency Childrens quislingism in reading Intersubjectivity and collaborationism Children as co-constructors of k at presentledge Play as a context for plastic opinion Emerging climaxes to mind accomplishment perspicacity and au whencetic mind Summary 13 13 13 3 14 14 14 15 15 17 17 18 18 19 21 fall apartition 3 What to judge in proterozoic breeding The essentials of information Dispositions A rank of cognitive abilities Emotional well-being Self-concept and soci might Summary 22 22 22 23 23 24 24 Section 4 How to evaluate previous(predicate) on hold A narrative onset to legal opinion of acquisition in primaeval puerility Learning stories A credit-foc wontd nestle A fully-contextualised station of encyclopaedism Methods for collecting information on pip-squeakrens schooling Observing and empathising Conversations with kidren Clinical interviews Making consciousness of baby birdrens scholarshipSustaining tuition and ontogeny through registeration Portfolios Summary 25 25 25 26 27 28 29 29 30 30 31 33 3 Aistear the archean sisterishness Curriculum textile Section 5 Assessment and the practician Professional association Skills traveling bag Ethical considerations Manageability of judging Tensions 34 34 34 35 35 36 Concluding comments 37 References 38 Table 1 Gardners arrangement of mankind railment and appraisal and Shepards manoeuvre principles of judgement 19 4 Aistear the ahead of time childhood Curriculum mannikin Glossary Glossary Agency Children atomic fig 18 industrious in their find in culture. whatever(a) instructions in which they dis gip their agency is by taking the green light in acquirement situations, by observing and becoming overwhelmd in on-going events, or by initiating conversations with opposites. Au then(prenominal)tic judicial decision Assessing kidskinren on tasks that argon part of their ordinary e genuinely twenty-four hour period comes in their former(a) education and supervise settings. Co-construction This occurs when babyren and/or practitioners construct mean and knowledge to the highest detail the world compounddly in fundamental interaction. Collaborative knowledge This is acquirement that administers broadcast in societal contexts and employ the resources of the environment.Formative mind This is discernment that informs teaching and attainment. It is interested with the shortterm collection and use of indicate for the guidance of acquirement. Intersubjectivity This is the mutual cause achieved by people in confabulation. Meta-cognition This reachs to what peasantren think about(predicate) their experience encyclopaedism, idea and remembering and how the act of mentation about these biddinges affect the ways in which baby birdren then go about intention tout ensembley learn, thinking and remembering. It is a flex out whereby tykeren vex aw atomic number 18 of their own thought servees.Pedagogy of mutuality This perspective recognises that two kid and bountiful film beliefs and ideas to the learning situation and that discourse and interaction argon the manner by which a shargond frame of doctorence is established. This results in an exchange of studyings surrounded by the child and the practitioner. Pedagogical capacity knowledge This is a form of paid intellectual which brings together content knowledge and knowledge about pedagogy. It is put up on an understanding of how better(p) to organise and present ideas and adapt them in response to the diverse interests and abilities of children.Performance estimate Assessing childrens former(a) learning and breeding through observing, recording, and evaluating childrens accomplishment or give way. Scaffolding This lists to the put of providing guidance and sponsor to children as they move from one train of competence to an distinguishablewise. It is a metaphor that is utilise to describe interactional brook for childrens efforts. The supporter offered to the child is cranky to and contingent on the amount of support needed. dodge These are patterns of former(a) repeatable behaviours which children lead in and which tierce them through a do by of co-ordination, to provoke generalisations.Socio-cultural theories These are a family of theories that occupy arisen from the get of Vygotsky and which arouse in common their emphasis on the role that loving and cultural factors institutefulness in childrens training and learning. Theory of see Children gradu in ally acquire the understanding that other people puke tone down beliefs about the world that differ from what the child him/herself believes or appears to be true. mutation of participation From a socio-cultural perspective, children are seen as developing through a process of participating in activities of their co mmunities, and in doing so their participation changes.They become approachively to a greater extent expert through engagement in cultural practice and through hearty interactions that guide them in taking on saucily roles and responsibilities. 5 Aistear the ahead of time Childhood Curriculum fashion model Supporting untimely learning and learning through formative discernment Introduction This research paper, Supporting previous(predicate) learning and culture through formative estimation responds to the questions Whats the conclude of formative judgement in primeval puerility? What should we assess? How should we assess?The paper is one of four research papers commissioned by the NCCA to set out the theory tip stool the framework for Early Learning1. This paper is being use to develop guidelines on assessment for inclusion body in the fashion model. eon there are a number of distinguishable types and functions of assessment this paper focuses on formative assessment as this offers most potential drop in term of assessing to support learning in the day-to-day interactions surrounded by braggart(a)s and children in former(a) childhood. Section 1 of the paper, General background explores the substance of assessment and its relationship with teaching and learning.Though still actually oft an rising world, what we know about how to support earliest learning and victimization through the formative assessment process has advanced close towhat in new years. In m all ways the advances in assessment practices in azoic childhood education and wangle mirror those in the field of assessment generally. In finicky, the articulation of the inter worrydness between teaching, learning and assessment and the involvedity of the relationships between these processes and course of instruction is of as frequently sizeableness to those concerned with other(a) learning and tuition, as it is to those concerned with later stages of educa tion.The term assessment, as apply in early childhood education and headache, generally implies the intention to get out a rich pick up of the ways in which children act, think and learn. In devote to orient the discussion about assessment in early childhood education and care, the initial section of the paper outlines the general context in relation to the assessment of early learning and instruction. While a number of different reasons for assessing early learning and development give the gate be identified, this paper focuses on use formative assessment to support teaching and learning.Section 2, The nature of early learning begins from the premise that in assessing early learning and development it is critical to declare and take account of the nature of early learning and development. We know that in early childhood learning and development is rapid, episodic and holistic. It is alike extremely influenced by the extent of support that is available for that learning. The adults around the child, and the extent to which they smoke and do support early learning and development, are crucial elements in determining the extent of learning.Because of their stage of development, childrens abilities in some areas are not yet mature. Their verbal abilities are still emerging, and so assessment of learning and development is oft through reflectivity of, and inference from, the childrens actions and reactions in cross situations. It is withal essential to acknowledge and take account of the fact that there are considerable cultural variations in childrens experiences. These depart result in differences in the course and content of early learning and development. They whitethorn also result in considerable differences in how children learn and in how they flourish their learning.It is important to focus on the breadth of childrens early learning and development. Section 3, What to assess in early learning focuses on assessing childrens dispositions, well-being, cognitive abilities and self-concept and sociability. Assessment in early childhood is shaped by how children from birth to vi years learn and develop. A narrative approach offers great potential for making assessment of early learning visible. Documentation of evidence of early learning and development in various ways, using a variety of media and tools, is important for twain reflecting on and communicating about childrens achievements. in that location appears to be general arrangement that assessment of early learning and development should be informal, carried out all ein truthwhere time, and in the context of the childs interactions with materials, objects and other people. It should also be authentic in the sense that it should take baffle in real-life contexts where it is im purposet in tasks that children see as significant, important and worthwhile. Informal assessments, carried out as children engage in experiences they see as germane(predicate) and pregnant, are credibly to produce the outstrip assessments of early learning and development.These shopping centers are considered in Section 4, How to assess early learning. 1 The Framework for Early Learning was renamed Aistear the Early Childhood Curriculum Framework in 2009. 6 Aistear the Early Childhood Curriculum Framework Supporting early learning and development through formative assessment Section 5, Assessment and the practitioner discusses the need for skipper development for early childhood practitioners. Good assessment practice requires understanding about how children learn and develop, the process of assessment, and skills to manageably assess in ways that observe children and that are ethically sound.The concluding comments clarify and summarise the chance on messages crossways the paper. notice geological periods arising from the discussion are presented in shaded boxes throughout the paper. Some of these eyeshades relate to come across messages arisin g from theory and research while others are aspirational. 7 Aistear the Early Childhood Curriculum Framework Supporting early learning and development through formative assessment Section 1 General background This section of the paper explores what is meant by assessment in early childhood and discusses its relationship with teaching and learning.Informed by this, a definition of formative assessment is presented. The section concludes by describing the current practice and legislative context in which assessment takes place in Ireland. Purpose of the paper The resolve of this paper is to review issues related to formative assessment of early learning. The findings of the paper will be utilize to support the development of the assessment guidelines in the Framework for Early Learning2. The paper responds to questions related to the what, why and how of formative assessment in early childhood. Assessment and curriculumWays of assessing childrens learning and development cannot be s eparated from features of the curriculum (for archetype, the degree of formality or informality that characterises it), and from views of learners and learning which are embodied in that curriculum. Kelly (1992) identifies the interrelating of curriculum and assessment as a passing complex and sophisticated matter (p. 16). He contests that the interplay of one with the other is crucial in determining the effectiveness of either. The NCCA is developing a curriculum framework for children between the ages of birth and six years.The Framework embraces a crabbed view of the child, of learning and of how that learning may be celebrated and lucubrateed. In the Framework for Early Learning, learning is presented in four broad and completing themes Well-being Identity and Be presbyopicing Communicating Exploring and Thinking. Some of the principles related to how children develop and learn which underpin the Framework include the pursuance holistic learning and development act ive learning play and first- travel by experiences relevant and meaningful experiences colloquy and language a well-planned and well-resourced outdoor and indoor learning environment. It will be important to identify an approach to assessment that will supporter practitioners identify and support childrens learning as it relates to the Frameworks principles and themes. Assessment and teaching are now generally considered to be as much inseparable processes in early childhood as they are in whatsoever other period of life (Shepard, Kagan and Wurtz, 1998 bowman et al. , 2001). We now know that children learn by edifice new understandings on those that they already suck in (Wood, 1998).In coiffe to support childrens learning then, practitioners first collect information about childrens well-being, identity and belonging, communication, and exploration and thinking. What children engage with, think, know, feel or can do are all of importance in the assessment process. Reflect ion on this information helpers the practitioner to establish 2 As noted earlier, the Framework for Early Learning was renamed Aistear the Early Childhood Curriculum Framework in 2009. 8 Aistear the Early Childhood Curriculum Framework Supporting early learning and development through formative assessment ow trounce to advance childrens learning and development. Once this is established the practitioner is then in a position to plan worthwhile, kindle and dispute learning experiences to further progress learning. Clearly then, assessment in early childhood is not something that can be considered in restricted of either curriculum or learning. It is critical that the assessment of early learning recognises the unique nature of development in early childhood. It is also critical that we learn from the experiences of countries with a longer history of appraising assessment practices and processes than we absorb here in Ireland.Working in the context of the United States, where the re has been considerable interest in finding captivate assessment formats for use by early childhood practitioners, Shepard et al. (1998, pp. 8-9) devised a set of principles to guide practice and policy for the assessment of childrens learning. These represented a synthesis of understandings in respect of the most beguile approaches to assessment in early childhood and the authors advised that they should apply to some(prenominal) situation in which assessments are use to agnise decisions about childrens learning Assessments should bring about make headways for children. Assessments should be tailored to a unique(predicate) purpose and should be reliable, valid and fair for that purpose. Assessment policies should be intentional recognising that reliability and validity of assessments increases with childrens age. Assessments should be age-appropriate in both content and the method of data collection. Assessments should be linguistically appropriate, recognising that to some extent all assessments are measures of language. Parents should be a valued source of assessment information, as well as an audience for assessment results. The Irish context The practice context Assessment in the early years of a childs life can be viewed from a number of perspectives. David (2003) identifies lead perspectives the day-to-day informal assessments made by the adults with whom the child comes in disturb. In most cases these are early years practitioners who may or may not document much(prenominal) assessments. the physical assessments by paediatricians, public health nurses and family doctors.These aim to identify any physical problems that may impede childrens progression and seek to alleviate them as much as possible. diagnostic assessments that can suck in a range of functions, including identifying children with modified educational need, and destiny practitioners to support their learning more effectively. No single type of assessment can serve all of the purposes identified in the perspectives outlined above. distributively perspective has a role to play, especially in the case of children with special needs where diagnostic assessments are of paramount importance.Babies, bambinos and four-year-old children may experience various types of assessments in early childhood. Some may occur frequently, others occasionally. Multi-agency and multi-disciplinary communication is a critical means by which information related to the childs development and learning can be shared for the benefit of the child. It is imperative that practitioners in early childhood settings have access to any information that is of use in making sure learning opportunities in the setting are appropriate for each individual child.The practice of practitioners building on assessments carried out by other professionals much(prenominal) as therapists can be facilitated by significant levels of inter- and/or multidisciplinary teamwork. 9 Aistear the Early Childhood Curriculum Framework Supporting early learning and development through formative assessment Where children spend some or all of their day in out-of-home settings the practitioners with whom they are in contact engage in ongoing assessment for supporting learning and development.Traditionally, observation is the primary method used in assessing childrens learning and development in the range of early education settings in Ireland. For instance, close observations of childrens play in a range of childcare services in Ireland provide the basis for learning and teaching stories (Brennan, 2004). Many practitioners use checklists to record aspects of their observations. These are often used to record observations in relation to the assessment of childrens skills and understandings, particularly in the area of identifying children with special educational needs and in supporting their learning and development.In relation to their use of assessment practices to support childrens learning in curriculum areas, only about half of infant teachers who inscribed in leg 1 of the Primary Curriculum Review (NCCA, 2005) reported that they used observation and about three-quarters reported using documentation. Infant teachers in primary schools also use a range of developmental and diagnostic assessments, for example, in the area of early literacy, to assess specific aspects of childrens development and learning. (See Section 4 for a more extensive discussion on observation as an assessment method. )Increasingly there is an aware(p)ness that children live different childhoods their social, cultural, linguistic and bionomic experiences and opportunities differ and all of this influences assessment. Practitioners who are in daily contact with children are in a good position to familiarise themselves with these diverse aspects of childrens lives and of their possibilities for early learning and development. Consequently, on a day-to-day basis, the practitioners own as sessments are the ones that have the most potential in terms of provision for childrens learning and of making judgements regarding childrens progress.Using assessment for this purpose is the primordial focus of this paper. light upon imply A range of assessments are appropriate in assessing childrens learning. The focus of the assessment depends on its purpose. The commutation focus of this paper is on formative assessment where practitioners own assessments are used to support and plan for childrens learning. The legislative context at that place is a long history of informal assessment of childrens learning in Ireland. However, for various reasons early childhood practitioners now find it essential to document learning in ways that were not general practice previously.Both legislative requirements and practitioners own desires to better understand early learning and how best to tense it, are to the fore in encouraging the documentation of information related to childrens ea rly learning and development. In relation to youthfulness children attending primary schools, The Education issue (Department of Education and Science, 1998) requires principals and teachers to regularly survey students and periodically report the results of the evaluation to the students and their parents. The implications of this requirement for teachers and schools include developing assessment procedures which provide an accurate account of childrens progress and achievement creating and maintaining records of childrens progress and achievement while they are attending the school providing parents with assessment reports which contain accurate and clearly accessible information about their childrens progress and achievement (NCCA, 2007a, p. 95). The Equal Status Act (The Equality Authority, 2000) has implications for the assessment policy in early education settings.In particular, it requires settings to be aware of the make of context, culture and language in assessing c hildrens learning and development. 10 Aistear the Early Childhood Curriculum Framework Supporting early learning and development through formative assessment The Education for Persons with Special Educational need Act (EPSEN) (Department of Health and Children, 2004) requires that where a child has or may have special educational needs an assessment of those needs should be carried out. With children not attending formal schooling this is the responsibility of the relevant health board.Where the child is a student then the Act requires schools to identify when a child is not benefiting from the education programme on offer and to investigate the reasons behind this. The school, or in the case of a child not at school the relevant health board, is mandated to ensure that an individual education plan (IEP) for an appropriate education for the child is drawn up in consultation with the childs parents. The Act outlines the statutory requirements for educational planning for children w ith special educational needs (SEN).It requires that a multi-disciplinary assessment be carried out in situations where it is considered that the child may have special educational needs. An IEP moldiness then be prepared for each child identified as having such(prenominal)(prenominal) needs. Discussion and agreement regarding the abilities, skills and talents as well as the nature and degree of the childs special educational needs, together with an psychoanalysis of how these needs affect the childs learning and development is required. The plan moldinessiness include these and must also specify goals for learning and development for the child over a period not exceeding ne year. It must also specify the supports that need to be put in place to enable the child to participate in and benefit from education. The Disability Act (Department of Health and Children, 2005) enables preparedness for the assessment of health and education needs for persons with disabilities, arising from their situation. The Act provides for access for people with disabilities to health and education services. In relation to educational needs, Part 2 Section 8 (9) states that where an assessment is applied for it must be carried out by or at the request of an assessment officer who then identifies the need for the provision of an educational service to the child, he or she shall, in case the child is enrolled in a school, refer the matter to the principal of that schoolin any other case, refer the matter to the council for the purposes of an assessment. The Child Care (Pre-School Services) (No 2) Regulations (Department of Health and Children, 2006) set out the regulations and requirements pertaining to all aspects of the operation of pre-school settings. Regulation 5 explicitly requires thatA person carrying on a pre-school service shall ensure that each childs learning, development and well-being is facilitated at heart the daily life of the service through the provision of the appropriate opportunities, experiences, activities, interaction, materials and equipment, having regard to the age and state of development of the child and the childs cultural context. To fulfil this requirement it is necessary for practitioners to engage in making important judgements about childrens learning and development and how best to extend and enrich it. By implication this involves the practitioner in assessing learning and development.Indeed, the explanatory guide directs practitioners to be pro-active in ensuring that appropriate action is taken to address each childs individual needs with his/her parents and following consultation, where appropriate, with other relevant services (p. 39). While there are other pieces of legislation which dissemble on aspects of assessment such as the exchange of assessment information between settings, the focus of this paper is on the substantial process of using assessment to support early learning and development. How best to com ply with the above demands in ways that are respectful to hildren develop the complexity of early learning and are helpful in planning future learning experiences has now become a key issue for consideration for early childhood practitioners. distinguish point Assessment takes place within a particular legislative framework in Ireland. Ethical Issues The nature of the power relations between babies, toddlers and juvenility children and the practitioners with whom they come into contact needs to be acknowledged in the assessment situation. The power of the adult and the relative dependency of children make it imperative that ethical issues are prone serious consideration by practitioners.Some of these issues are discussed later in Section 5. 11 Aistear the Early Childhood Curriculum Framework Supporting early learning and development through formative assessment Towards a definition of formative assessment Bowman, Donovan and Burns (2001) suggest that the term assessment, as app lied in early childhood education and care, generally implies the intention to provide a rich run across of the ways in which children act, think and learn. much(prenominal) a picture focuses on the individuals learning, is built up over time and provides evidence of learning in a number of different contexts.In relation to its importance, they argue that Assessment has an important role to play in revealing a childs prior knowledge, development of concepts and ways of interacting with and understanding the world so that teachers can choose a pedagogical approach and curricular materials that will support the childs further learning and development. (p. 259) Pelligrini (1998) describes assessment in early childhood as being about the collection of information about children. This is generally soundless to encompass a number of other processes besides collecting. For example, Lally nd Hurst (1992) describe how assessment also involves practitioners in documenting, analysing and re flecting on the information collected, and using this to plan and support further learning. This definition is very similar to that used in Assessment in the Primary School Curriculum Guidelines for Schools (NCCA, 2007a). While similar methods may be useful in both early childhood settings and in primary school settings, in early childhood assessment particular account needs to be taken of the characteristics of babies, toddlers and young children and to the unique ways in which these children learn.Early childhood assessment focuses specifically on finding out what children are interested in, understand, think, feel, and are able to do. It seeks to document this information in order to understand childrens thinking and learning styles, to chart childrens progress and to support further learning. It is developmental in that it focuses on processes rather than on content or product. appoint point Assessment of early learning provides a rich picture of childrens learning by collectin g and documenting information. Through reflecting on and using this information, childrens future learning is support and enhanced.Supporting learning and development Assessment in early childhood has been identified as having a number of functions ipsative, diagnostic, summative, critical and informative (Wood and Attfield, 2005). Assessment in early childhood has enormous potential to support learning and development. A recent large-scale longitudinal study of early learning settings in England confirmed the importance of assessment in stomaching childrens needs and in supporting their cognitive progress (Siraj-Blatchford, Sylva, Muttock, Gilden and Bell, 2002).The ultimate purpose of assessment in early childhood is to make learning more interesting, enjoyable and successful for children. Drummond (1993) suggests that assessment must work for children We can use our assessments to shape and enrich our curriculum, our interactions, our provision as a whole we can use our assess ments as a way of identifying what children will be able to learn next, so that we can support and extend that learning. Assessment is part of our daily practice in striving for quality. (p. 13) Key pointAssessment in early childhood invokes the extension and enrichment of childrens early learning and development. The following section anticipates at the nature of early learning and the implications for assessing early learning. 12 Aistear the Early Childhood Curriculum Framework Supporting early learning and development through formative assessment Section 2 The nature of early learning This section of the paper discusses the characteristics of early learning and identifies some key theoretical constructs that guide the teaching, learning and assessment processes during early childhood.Theoretical considerations have been potent in shaping new and emerging approaches to assessment and the most salient of these are discussed in relation to their implications for the assessment of early learning and development. Characteristics of early learning During the early childhood period childrens learning across the various dimensions of development (for example, physical, motor, linguistic, emotional) is greater than at any other period, but is also highly variable across the dimensions.It also occurs very rapidly, is episodic in nature and is very susceptible to environmental conditions (Shepard et al. , 1998). These factors contribute to making the assessment of early learning and development very challenging. The complexity of early learning We have a great mussiness of evidence that early learning and development is both extensive and complex (e. g. Drummond, 1993 Bowman et al. , 2001 Carr, 2002). The research paper, Childrens early learning and development (French, 2007) provides information on many facets of early learning and development.Early childhood educators have systematically sought to convey the extent of this complexity and over the years they ha ve provided evidence of exactly how much learning children can lay out, provided that it is approached in appropriate ways. For instance, Donaldson (1983) clearly demonstrates how children display different levels of proficiency/learning in different contexts. In her seminal work, Childrens Minds, she reviewed research that illustrated the dramatic effect of the inclusion or omission of a single adjective in call into question children on so-called logical tasks.She argues (p. 59) that the young child first makes sense of situations (and perhaps especially those involving compassionate intentions) and then uses this kind of understanding to help him make sense of what is said to him. Looking not at what children put forward but at what they do, the work of Athey (1990) and that of Nutbrown (1999) clearly demonstrates how, as children ensue certain schema for considerable periods of time, these can be identified and supported by practitioners. Early learning is seen, for instan ce in Atheys work, to have its own recognisable and valid characteristics.Nutbrown (1999) draws out the implication of that work for the assessment of childrens pathways and patterns of development and interest. This work along with that of Drummond (1993) exemplifies vividly how much of childrens learning there is to see if practitioners are open to seeing it by looking beyond what children can tell us and instead observing what they actually can do. Play provides an important vehicle and context for this work. Key point During the early childhood period, childrens learning is highly complex and is made visible through assessing carefully and thoughtfully.Key theoretical constructs for assessment Dahlberg, Moss and Pence (1999) let out that in recent years, especially in Western Europe, there has been a process of rethinking childhood that has led to new constructions of the child. They locate this process in a number of interrelated developments with respect to learning theories ism psychology sociology and a concurrent questioning of previous understandings in these fields. From this post-modern perspective, the young child is seen, from the start of life, as a construction of his or her own world.This is very similar to the perspective adopted by Malaguzzi (1993), the founder of the world-renowned Reggio Emilia pre-schools in Italy. Dahlberg et al. (1999) describe how in Reggio Emilia pre-schools, the young child is understood as a unique, complex individual who is rich in the sense that he or she is equipped from the start to engage fully and actively in their world. A enormousr discussion of these perspectives follows. 13 Aistear the Early Childhood Curriculum Framework Supporting early learning and development through formative assessmentEcological perspectives Ecological and socio-cultural theories of learning have largely dominated explanations of development and learning in early childhood in recent years. For instance, ecological (Bronfenbrenner 1979) and bioecological (Bronfenbrenner and Morris, 1998) models of serviceman development have been important in efforts to understand learning and development and associated processes such as assessment. These models emphasise the role in human development of both the environment and of processes.The research paper, Perspectives on the relationship between education and care (Hayes, 2007) in turn highlights both the importance of care and education in facilitating childrens overall development. From this perspective, human development is seen as taking place as a result of progressively more complex mutual interactions (p. 996) between the young child and the people, objects and symbols in the environment. To be effective the interactions must occur on a fairly regular basis over extended periods of time (p. 996).These enduring forms of interaction (proximal processes) are seen as key to learning and development and we must study these interactions over time and aboard the ob servation of behaviour in natural settings. From an ecologicaltheory perspective, Bronfenbrenner (1979) describes how the learner can participate in increasingly more complex learning situations and in doing so take increasingly greater responsibility in the learning situation. The perspective also emphasises the agency or active nature of children in their interactions with adults, objects and symbols.The model can be used to draw attention to the interpersonal and situational aspects of assessment, for example the importance of the personal characteristics of the child and the adult in the assessment context, the importance of interchangeable interactions between child and adult and the importance of assessing childrens level of engagement with the objects and symbols provided in the immediate environment. Thus the ecological approach emphasises assessment of children engaged in real tasks in natural settings.This perspective sits very well with the socio-cultural perspective tha t we look at next. Socio-cultural perspectives In the past two decades socio-cultural perspectives, that is perspectives that highlight the social and cultural nature of learning, are increasingly used to excuse the ways that learning and development occur in early childhood (Anning, Cullen and Fleer, 2004). Socio-cultural theories of learning suggest that the process of learning is as much a social construction as it is an individual one. Rogoff (1998, p. 91) describes development as transformation of participation. Transformation occurs at a number of levels for instance, the learner changes at the level of their involvement, in the role they play in the learning situation, in the ability they demonstrate in moving flexibly from one learning context to another, and in the amount of responsibility taken in the situation. natural process theory also concentrates on the social aspects of learning. bodily function theory Activity theory, which is a development of aspects of Vygotskys work (See for example, Engerstrom et al. 1999), is also being highlighted as a theoretical framework that may be useful in explaining the complexity of learningrelated issues in early childhood. Fleer, Anning and Cullen (2004) explain how natural process theory, in common with Rogoffs discussion of socio-cultural theory, focuses on the study of the complexity of human behaviour in social groups and in specific contexts. The theory is premised on the notion that the contextual features of a task contribute to performance on that task (p. 178).Furthermore, children use tools such as language, a particular action or resource to mediate knowledge in interactions with others. provided the cultural features of the context in which they use these tools influences the way activities are performed and understood. Key point If socio-cultural theory informs our understanding of how children learn, it also by implication informs our understanding of assessment. 14 Aistear the Early Childhood Curriculum Framework Supporting early learning and development through formative assessmentWhat all of these perspectives hold in common is their emphasis on the socially constructed nature of learning and of assessment. There are a number of other important constructs that also unite them to greater or lesser degrees. These include childrens agency, the importance of collaboration, and the co-construction of meaning and knowledge. These constructs are particularly helpful when thinking about the quality of the interactions between practitioners and young learners. Quality interactions are increasingly recognised as central to pedagogy (Black and Wiliam 1998a Siraj-Blatchford et al. , 2002).The next sub-section discusses these ideas in some detail, and in doing so, draws out the implications for assessment practices in early childhood. Childrens agency Bruner (1999a) argues that advances in the study of human development provide us with a profile of the child as an active, intentio nal being with knowledge as man-made rather than entirely there with ways to negotiate with others in the construction of knowledge. (See French (2007) for more detailed information. ) A crucial aspect of identity and self-esteem is that the child sees him/her self as an agent in run across of his/her own actions.Some ways in which children display their agency is by taking the initiative in learning situations, by observing and becoming involved in ongoing events, or by initiating conversations with others. Agency is about taking more control of your own mental activity (Bruner, 1996, p. 87). Bruner argues that the agentive mind is not only active in nature but it seeks out dialogue and discourse with other active minds (p. 93). Bruner (1999a) identifies efforts to recognise childrens perspectives in the processes of learning as highly significant and he uses the term pedagogy of mutuality (p. 3) to describe the pedagogy that arises from such endeavours. It is premised on the bel ief that children are able to reason to make sense (both alone and in discourse with others) to reflect and to hold theories about self and about the world. The practitioner, according to Bruner (p. 12) is concerned with understanding what the child thinks and how he/she arrives at what he/she believes. He identifies four key research constructs which have enriched this perspective on teaching and learning (and by implication assessment) Intersubjectivity how the child develops the ability to read other minds Theory of mind the childs grasp of anothers intentional state Meta-cognition what the child thinks about learning, remembering thinking Collaborative learning how children, through talk and discussion, explain and revise their thinking. These theoretical ideas are important also in the analysis of assessment as it relates to early learning and development. Childrens collaboration in learning is also important and this is considered below. Key pointThe active role which c hildren themselves play in their interactions with others needs to be recognised and taken into account in any assessment of learning. Childrens collaboration in learning govern of proximal development Vygotskys theory of learning (1978 1986) has been highly influential in helping to explain the processes of learning in early childhood. In particular, his notion of the zone of proximal development has provided the foundation and potential for some of the most important recent initiatives in the assessment of individual childrens learning (Lunt, 2000).Berk and Winsler (1995) describe Vygotskys zone of proximal development (ZPD) as a kinetic zone of sensitivity in which learning and cognitive development occur. Tasks that children cannot do individually but they can do with help from others invoke mental functioning that are currently in the process of developing, rather than those that have already matured (p. 26). It appears that Vygotsky originally introduced the ZPD in the cont ext of arguing against intelligence testing which he felt was seeking to assess something static and did not reflect the dynamic and ever-changing 5 Aistear the Early Childhood Curriculum Framework Supporting early learning and development through formative assessment nature of human cognition. Adult-child collaboration within the ZPD is critical for effective teaching and learning interactions because it is within such interactions that the practitioner identifies how the child may be assisted in learning and what the child is capable of doing with appropriate support. The practitioner also has the opportunity to assess the impact of such support on the childs progress.This approach to assessment effectively merges the teaching and assessment processes. It is commonly referred to as dynamic assessment. When Feuerstein (1979) first proposed this form of assessment he was envisioning, in essence, a correlative problem-solving situation during which the practitioner gauges the nature and extent of assistance required by the child in order to solve the problem. Childrens responsiveness to appropriate instructional interactions is a key factor in dynamic assessment situations and it is now considered to be an important predictor of learning potential (Berk and Winsler, 1995).Lidz (1991) emphasises that The focus of dynamic assessment is on the assessors ability to discover the means of facilitating the learning of the child, not on the childs demonstration of ability to the assessor (as cited in Berk and Winsler, 1995, p. 139). Dynamic assessment is considered by Berk and Winsler (ibid. ) as especially useful for making visible the learning potential of those children whose early experiences do not include experiences that prepare them for learning in group/institutional settings. (For a comprehensive discussion of dynamic assessment and emerging approaches to such assessment, see Lunt, 2000).The concept of scaffolding is often associated with ZPD and it is this which we turn our attention to next. Key point Practitioners interactions with children often incorporate both teaching and assessment. It is critical that the practitioner is capable of engaging certain interactive skills in such situations since these will be necessary to ensure optimal learning and development. Scaffolding Effective scaffolding (Wood, Bruner and Ross, 1976), where the adult guides the childs learning in the ZPD, is an important feature of the engagement of the child in join problem solving.Here, the child interacts with the practitioner while the two are together with trying to reach a goal and this results in the establishment of intersubjectivity (Newson and Newson, 1975). Intersubjectivity refers to the process whereby two participants achieve a shared understanding whilst undertaking a task that they approach from different perspectives. The parties co-construct meanings in activities that involve higherorder thinking (Vygotsky, 1978). Rogoff (1998) emphas ises the ongoing mutual process of understanding, which is inherent in joint problemsolving interactions.She also draws attention to the institutional and cultural aspects of joint problemsolving activities. She distinguishes between her socio-cultural approach to studying experts support of novices learning and other approaches which focus on particular techniques such as scaffolding. Rogoff distinguishes between the concepts of scaffolding and of working in the zone of proximal development. She describes scaffolding as a specific technique counselling on what experts provide for novices it focuses on the tutors efforts as they relate contingently to the novices successes and failures (p. 699).However, working in the zone of proximal development is, in her view, wider than scaffolding. It focuses on the processes of communication that builds a continually evolving mutual perspective. It is a way of describing an activity in which person with greater expertise assists someone else to participate in socio-cultural activities in a way that exceeds what they could do other than (p. 699). Mutual contribution is an essential consideration so interactions and communicative and cooperative processes all form part of the picture, rather than just the childs successes or errors as in scaffolding.Rogoff argues that The concept of scaffolding does not refer to the institutional and cultural context in which it occurs, whereas the concept of zone of proximal development requires attention to processes of communication and the relation of the interaction at hand to institutional, cultural and historic processes. (p. 700) 16 Aistear the Early Childhood Curriculum Framework Supporting early learning and development through formative assessment Key point Supporting childrens learning is an important part of assessment. For the practitioner this is often far more complex than simply applying a technique such as scaffolding.Learners make an equally important contribution. I ntersubjectivity and collaboration are important in scaffolding childrens learning and we look at these two concepts below. Intersubjectivity and collaboration Rogoff (1990 1998) has illustrated how children make an important contribution in collaborating in the process of establishing joint understanding. Children, including infants in the first year of life, can sometimes be observed to be deliberately taking the lead in cooperative activities by seeking information or by directing activities.Rogoffs analysis, consistent with Vygotsky, suggests that the intersubjectivity as achieved by adults and babies is different from that achieved by adults and children who can use linguistic (verbal and gestural) communication to achieve mutual understandings. This then has implications for the assessment process across the age range birth to six years. Working in the zone of proximal development with a toddler will include the adult engaging in the demonstration of objects, collaborative ac tivity with objects and the guidance of the childs attention.Rogoff (1998) points out that the child, for example in seeking to help the adult in everyday chores, very often initiates such activity. Older toddlers and young children will often seek to swear their independence in doing a particular task themselves but Rogoffs analysis of the research suggests that they also will actively seek assistance when they are stuck. Recently a question has arisen about the capacity of early years settings to support the kinds of relationships and shared experiences that enable children to engage in the types of social participation that promote optimum learning (Parker-Rees, 2007).The research indicates that the nature and stage setting of babies, toddlers and childrens interactions with parents, the playful quality of these interactions and the extent to which relationships can influence reciprocal imitative behaviour (an important process of learning especially in the first year) must al l be fully appreciated by practitioners and be seen as desirable conditions for learning in the setting. Key point The concept of collaboration is key when considering assessment from a socio-cultural perspective.In collaborating, the child and the practitioner are involved in each others thinking processes through shared efforts. In order to assess certain aspects of learning by babies, toddlers and young children, it is essential for adults to collaborate with the children in order to understand their learning. The co-construction of knowledge is supported by intersubjectivity and collaboration and it is to this that we next draw our attention. Children as co-constructors of knowledgeIn recent times the term co-construction has featured prominently in influential early childhood publications, although it was implicit in the last century in the work of Dewey (1933) who emphasised the ways in which children construct their learning by actively engaging in, and shaping, their experie nces and environments. For instance, Jordan (2004) discusses the term scaffolding and compares it with coconstruction. The specific pattern of interaction that characterised early accounts of scaffolding, according to Jordan (ibid. and Rogoff (1998), generally maintained the power and control with the adult. They argue that the term co-construction emphasises the child as a powerful player in his/her own learning. An example of how this process of co-construction works in practice is illustrated in the discussions of the Reggio Emilia approach to early childhood education (Edwards, Gandini and Forman, 1998). Co-construction refers to adults and children making meaning and knowledge together (MacNaughton and Williams, 2004).Co-construction recognises the childs expertise and in order to understand this, the practitioner needs to interact with the child and become aware of the childs thoughts and thereby to establish intersubjectivity. 17 Aistear the Early Childhood Curriculum Framewo rk Supporting early learning and development through formative assessment Recent research (Siraj-Blatchford et al. , 2002) also highlighted the process of co-construction and found it to be a key factor in terms of promoting childrens learning.Essentially a co-construction perspective emphasises understanding and meaning on the part of both child and adult, rather than the acquisition of facts by the child. Jordan (2004) concludes that the two concepts, scaffolding and co-construction have different applicability depending on whether the goal of the practitioner is the exploration of thinking or the achievement of pre-specified learning goals. Key point Co-construction of meaning and knowledge is central to teaching, learning and assessment and it occurs when both child and practitioner engage together in achieving mutual understanding.Play as a context for formative assessment As this paper demonstrates, childrens learning is complex and assessment approaches need to take cognisanc e of this. In early childhood, this complexity is profusely evident as children engage in play. The importance of play to young childrens learning and development is a key principle for early childhood practitioners (Wood, 2004). Assessing childrens understandings and progress as they play, either alone or with others, is a crucial activity in early years settings. In assessing the childs learning through play the adult can use a range of approaches and methods.Practitioners make assessments by focusing on childrens play interests, their levels of engagement and participation. They make assessments while skilfully engaging with children in play. Skilful engagement includes intervention in play as and when appropriate. Such interventions may serve to initiate or stick up interactions, thereby leading to shared talking and thinking. They may also involve scaffolding children in order to enable them to reach their potential at a particular time. (See the research paper, Play as a co ntext for early learning and development (Kernan, 2007) for detailed information on play. Childrens learning is a complex matter and assessment approaches need to take cognisance of this. The paper now looks at emerging approaches to assessment, all of which take account of play as a vehicle for learning and development. Key point Assessing childrens understandings and progress as they play, either alone or with others, is a crucial activity in early years settings. Emerging approaches to assessment The rationale for using assessment to enrich and extend childrens learning can be located in recent developments in societys understandings of learning in the early years.For instance, in recent decades there have been very big changes in our understandings of human nature and of learning. Gardner (1999, p. 91) reviews what he describes as several lines of evidence from the cognitive, neural, and developmental sciences which point to a far more capacious view of the human mind and of hum an learning than that which informed earlier conceptions. He presents a picture of assessment that builds on the newly emerging picture of human development (see Table 1). Gardners principles complement the earlier principles presented by Shepard et al. 1998). (See pages 16-17. ) 18 Aistear the Early Childhood Curriculum Framework Supporting early learning and development through formative assessment Table 1 Gardners understanding of human development and assessment and Shepards guiding principles of assessment Features of human development Features of assessment In understanding human development, there is Assessment should be simple, natural and occurring on a reliable schedule evidence for the existence of multiple faculties or intelligences have ecological validity (be do in situations hat are real) recognition of vast individual differences the sex appeal of assessing learning in context utilise instruments that are intelligence-fair and not dependent on language or logi cal faculties locating competence and skill outside the head of the individual. use multiple measures be sensitive to individual differences, developmental levels and forms of expertise use materials which are intrinsically interesting and motivating yield information to be used for the learners benefit. a necessity for a developmental perspective n emersion of a symbol-system perspective Performance and authentic assessment incorporate some of Gardners ideas and a discussion of these follows below. Performance assessment and authentic assessment Emerging approaches to assessment take account of developments in theories about learning and about human development. Performance assessment is currently seen as an approach that is particularly appropriate for assessing many aspects of early learning and development (see Bowman et al. , 2001). Meisels (1999) describes performance assessment as assessments that are ounded on the notion that learning and development can only be ass essed over time and in interactions with materials, objects and other people. In this approach to assessment, the expectation is that tasks must be practical, naturalistic and challenging for children (Torrance, 2001). Performance assessment implies observation of children as they undertake a number of routine tasks in early learning settings. According to Meisels (1999, p. 58) these should meet a number of criteria tasks should bring together various skills that children display and demonstrate during the course of interactions children should be assisted to perform to the very best of their ability tasks should be guided by developmental standards tasks should engage children in criticism about their work and in articulating their ideas about their learning. Authentic assessment is a type of performance assessment. It is described as compatible with the prevailing philosophy that emphasises whole child development (Puckett and Black 2000, p. 6). This philosophy explains devel opment across a range of domains (for example social, moral, emotional, language and cognitive).It also recognises the diversity of early learning and the role of environmental factors in shaping that learning. From an authentic assessment perspective, curriculum and assessment are interwoven and emphasise relevant and meaningful experiences. Assessment focuses on what children do, and on how they do it in the context of meaningful tasks. Authentic assessment has a number of identifiable features (Puckett and Black, 2000, p. 7), including the following 19 Aistear the Early Childhood Curriculum Framework Supporting early learning and development through formative assessment an emphasis on emerging development a focus on the young childs individual strengths and weaknesses is based on principles of child growth and development emanates from logical, meaningful, relevant and applicable curricula is performance based recognises different intelligence and learning styles is contem plative and analytic is ongoing and occurs in many contexts is collaborative with learners, parents and others involved in childrens learning is interwoven with teaching. Key point Authentic assessment is compatible with a whole child perspective on learning and development. 20 Aistear the Early Childhood Curriculum FrameworkSupporting early learning and development through formative assessment Summary Where the purpose of assessment is to promote further learning, assessment becomes a particular type of teaching strategy. (See marshall and Drummond, 2006). Assessment from a socio-cultural perspective takes account of the key learning processes as determined by socio-cultural theory. In particular, collaboration and the importance in that process of the establishment of mutual understanding (intersubjectivity) need to be emphasised, as do ideas about childrens agency and those related to the co-construction of knowledge and understanding.An understanding of the different process es that contribute to childrens learning, and the types of interactions that promote it are key to understanding how such learning can best be assessed. The recognition of these processes at work is also central in conceptualising assessment approaches that take account of and display the key role of children themselves in the assessment process. Authentic assessment reflects new understandings about learning and about human development, and recognises the holistic, contextualised and dynamic nature of learning in early childhood.Having discussed the interconnection between how children learn and approaches to assessment, the next section looks at what to assess in childrens early learning and development. 21 Aistear the Early Childhood Curriculum Framework Supporting early learning and development through formative assessment Section 3 What to assess in early learning This section of the paper identifies aspects of learning that are of concern in assessing childrens early learning and development. The challenges of assessing a wide range of learning and development in a balanced way are discussed.The essentials of learning Skills and knowledge are important in respect of early learning. However, increasingly there are calls for a wider view of what it is that children are learning in the years from birth to six, and for explicitness about other areas of childrens development that are now recognised as critical for long term success. For instance, Bertram and Pascal (2002) identify social competence, emotional well-being and dispositions to learn as core constituent elements of the effective learner.In relation to each of these areas they identify elements that characterise the effective learner. Indicators related to disposition include independence, creativity, self-motivation and resilience. Those related to emotional literacy include empowerment, connectedness, and positive self-esteem. Those related to social competence inco

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